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Indonesia is the world’s largest archipelago, made up of more than 17,000 islands stretching between Australia and Asia. It is the fourth most populous nation in the world, and has the largest Muslim-majority population. It is a republic, with an elected parliament and a president, who is the head of government.
The country has had a tumultuous history, characterized by colonization and rebellion against it, military rule, dictatorship, and civilian strife. A long period of authoritarian rule imposed by General Suharto in the 1960s achieved some success in terms of national stability and economic development, but was not accompanied by political freedoms, human rights or transparency in public decision-making.
After General Suharto fell from power in 1998, Indonesia began its transition to democracy, ushering in a period of political, economic and social reforms it termed reformasi. Governance reforms included the strengthening of existing institutions and the creation of new ones to ensure more democratic governance, and greater accountability and transparency in the exercise of government functions. Constitutional reforms brought a more equitable system of legislative representation 1. The country’s first direct presidential election was held in 2004 - President Bambang Susilo Yudhoyono was elected as head of government in an election widely hailed as the country’s first peaceful transition of power.
Decentralization and regional autonomy have devolved authority from the central government to local government at the provincial, district and village levels, with the aim of improving administration, economic resources and services for local communities. However, Indonesia has often been criticized for deep-seated corruption 2 that exists at all layers of its massive bureaucracy, and critics (from among the NGO community, media and even government officials themselves) fear that decentralization could aggravate the problem in many provinces, given entrenched attitudes that accept corruption as a fact of life, and the potential for exploitation of power as local administrations obtain greater autonomy and decision-making powers.
In the last few years, Indonesia has experienced considerable upheaval, due to a variety of factors, which has slowed its progress. The country was deeply affected by the Asian financial crisis in the late 1990s, some effects of which still linger today. While relations between religious and ethnic groups are largely harmonious, sectarian violence and active separatist movements in different provinces are ongoing points of instability. Prone to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, Indonesia has suffered recent natural disasters such as the 2004 Tsunami that have caused immense suffering, displaced hundreds of thousands of people, and halted socio-economic development in the affected areas. The spread of avian influenza and HIV/AIDS are critical areas of concern, as is the growth of religious fundamentalism and militant Islamist forces, which have seen an insidious resurgence in recent times.
According to latest figures from UNDP, 52 percent of the poor have no access to safe water, and 44 percent are without proper sanitation. The number of people living below the poverty line has actually increased since 2005.
Although women are guaranteed equality under Indonesia’s constitution, and the country was one of the first in Southeast Asia to ratify the CEDAW Convention, considerable gaps exist between de jure and de facto equality for women, worsened by poverty and the disruptions to political and socio-economic development. Women are still significantly under-represented in public and political life, and in decision-making positions at the national and local levels.
Attempts have been made to revise discriminatory legislation, demonstrating progress towards gender equality. However, many laws still continue to discriminate against women, notably in the areas of family and marriage. The Marriage Act of 1974 for example, continues to perpetuate patriarchal attitudes and stereotypes about the roles and responsibilities of women and men in the family and society, and represents an obstacle to women’s enjoyment of their rights. Among other provisions, the Act provides that men are the heads of households and women are limited to domestic roles; allows polygamy; and sets the minimum age of marriage for girls at 16. Women continue to require their husband’s consent to get a passport or to take up night employment.
Women face discrimination in terms of their economic rights, including on issues of property ownership and land inheritance, access to credit, wages and workplace benefits, and livelihood opportunities. The country’s large number of female migrant workers and informal sector workers face exploitation, unregulated working conditions and poor access to protections. Literacy rates are much lower for women than men, and educational opportunities are fewer, especially in rural and remote areas. Violence against women is an endemic problem in the country, fueled by poverty, harmful gender stereotypes, and impunity for perpetrators. Female genital mutilation continues to be practiced in parts of the country, and trafficking in women and girls, both domestically and trans-nationally, is a serious problem.
Civil society groups working in the country have raised concerns about the rise of religious fundamentalist groups advocating restrictive interpretations of Shariah law which discriminate against women. These concerns have heightened in the last few years with decentralization, as some provinces and districts have enacted local legislation and regulations that curtail women’s freedoms and violate their human rights.
1) Indonesia Progress Report on the Millennium Development Goals, 2004
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Indonesia